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Note: This is not an investment advice but a book summary.
The Intelligent Investor Book
The Intelligent Investor, written by Benjamin Graham in 1949, is probably the most important and influential investment book ever written. This book, which is a holy book for all investors, has made the concept of investment simple and understandable, enabling even an ordinary individual to become a "smart investor". The book is also famous for introducing two concepts to the investment profession: the allegorical Mr Market and the concept of the “margin of safety.” The fact that Warren Buffet described this book as "the best book on investing ever written" makes it even more important.
Benjamin Graham
Benjamin Graham was a British-born American financial analyst, investor and professor. He is widely known as the “father of value investing” and wrote two of the discipline's founding texts: Security Analysis with David Dodd (1934) and The Intelligent Investor (1949). His investment philosophy emphasizes independent thinking, emotional detachment, and careful security analysis, emphasizing the importance of separating the price of a stock from the value of the underlying business.
Key Lessons from the Book
Investors are divided into two main types: “entrepreneurial investor” and “defensive investor”.
It is important to understand the difference between speculation and investment.
Entrepreneurial investors should see investing as a business and devote their time and energy to it.
Most investors don't have time to treat investing as a business. Therefore, they need to follow a defensive strategy.
There is no evidence to show that market timing and predictions work.
Value investors should focus on their company's operating performance and dividends rather than changing stock prices.
When measuring value, check the firm's earning ability. Then multiply and adjust the asset values.
Shareholders should check management's credibility.
Shareholders are responsible for ownership. They also have certain rights. Therefore, shareholders need to employ them seriously and consistently.
Always use a margin of safety to limit your downside.
Be a Smart Investor and Understand the Difference Between Investing and Speculation
A smart investor is patient, disciplined and willing to learn. He can also control his emotions and think for himself.
“This kind of intellect is more a feature of character than of brain.”
The first step to becoming a smart investor is understanding the difference between investing and speculating. Investing requires a comprehensive analysis of an investment, including determining the risk/return characteristics of the asset. An investment can promise security of principle and adequate returns. Speculation, on the other hand, involves making investment decisions that are not based on research and analysis, and therefore the possibility of capital loss may be high. Investors should limit their allocations to speculative positions (also known as “wild money accounts”) to no more than 10% of their mutual funds. Never mix money in a speculative account with money in an investment account.
“Stocks will perform well or badly in the future because the businesses behind them will perform well or badly; “No more, no less.”
The smart investor will never exit a stock position simply in reaction to stock price movements. He will always ask first whether the value of the company's underlying business has changed and then react accordingly. The smart investor only pays attention to the current stock price when it suits him. The investor who allows himself to be worried about unfair market declines in his assets is actually turning his fundamental advantage into a fundamental disadvantage. The main purpose of the speculator is to predict market fluctuations and make a profit from this. The investor's primary interest is to acquire and hold suitable securities at affordable prices. Investing is not about beating others at their game, but about controlling yourself at your own game. Many investors fail because they pay too much attention to what the stock market is doing right now.
Stock Market Volatility and Introduction to the Bay Market Concept
Imagine we own small shares in a private company that cost us $1,000. One of our partners is called Mr. Market. Mr Market is a very helpful partner. Every day he tells us how much our interest is worth and offers to buy us or sell additional interest accordingly. Sometimes his idea of value seems justified and reasonable by business developments and expectations as we know them. On the other hand, Mr. Market often lets his enthusiasm or fears run away with him, and the value he proposes seems a little silly to you.
If we are a prudent investor or sensible businessman, will we allow Mr Market's daily communications to determine our view on the value of $1,000 of shares in the venture? But with it When we agree or want to trade with him. We might be happy to sell to him when he offers a ridiculously high price, and we might be just as happy to buy from him when his price is low. But the rest of the time it would be wiser to form our own opinions about the value of our assets, based on the full reports we receive on the activities and financial condition of the business.
Silent Raider Inflation
Inflation is real and over time it erodes our purchasing power. A dollar 10 years ago is worth more than a dollar today. What this means is that cash is a terrible investment. We need to leverage cash to get more cash. We need to invest cash to beat inflation. Investors often overlook the importance of inflation. Psychologists call this the “money illusion.” For example, if we get a 2% pay raise in a year when inflation is 4%, we will definitely feel better than if we take a 2% pay cut in a year when inflation is zero. But both changes to the scenarios mentioned above leave us in much the same situation: 2% worse off after inflation. Investing in stocks and REITs for the long term can help investors protect their earnings/investment returns from the ill effects of inflation.
What Kind of Investor Should You Be?
It is widely believed that the return you can expect from an investment is directly proportional to the risk you are willing to take. This basically boils down to the belief that high risk equals high return and low risk equals low return. However, the rate of return an investor can expect is not only a function of risk but also the amount of effort he is willing to invest in research.
To determine the amount of risk you can take, ask yourself:
Are you single or married? What does your spouse or partner do for a living?
Do you have or will you have children? When will tuition bills be reflected at home?
Will you inherit money or be financially responsible for ageing, sick parents?
What factors could harm your career? (If you work for a bank or builder, a jump in interest rates could put you out of business. If you work for a chemical manufacturer, rising oil prices could be bad news.)
If you're self-employed, how long can businesses similar to yours survive?
Do you need your investments to supplement your cash income? (Typically, it's bonds; not stocks.)
Given your salary and spending needs, how much money can you afford to lose on your investments?
High-grade bonds and stocks for defensive investors
The defensive investor should split his funds between high-grade bonds and high-grade common stocks. The standard split between stocks and bonds should equal 50–50. One solid reason to increase the percentage in common stocks is that in a bear market, more stocks are available at a bargain price. Conversely, when the market level becomes dangerously high, they should reduce the equity component to below 50%. Investing in mutual funds is more suitable for defensive investors.
Stock selection for the defensive investor:
Adequacy of business size — Exclude smaller companies that are more volatile.
A sufficiently strong financial position — For industrial firms, current assets should be at least twice current liabilities. Long-term liabilities should not exceed net current assets. In public services, debt should not exceed twice the equity capital.
Earnings stability: There must be positive earnings for each of the last 10 years.
Dividend records: Must be uninterrupted for the last 20 years.
Earnings growth: An increase in earnings per share of at least one-third over the last ten years, using the starting and ending three-year averages.
Medium price/earnings ratio: Not more than 15 times the average earnings of the last 3 years.
A reasonable ratio of price to assets: Not more than 1.5 times the last reported book value. However, a low PE ratio below 15 may justify a higher price relative to book value. PE ratio x PB ratio should not be more than 22.5.
Stock selection for the enterprising investor:
Financial situation: Current assets must be at least 1.5 times current liabilities and liabilities must be more than 110% of net current assets (for industrial companies).
Earnings stability: Should not be open in the last five years.
Dividend records: A current amount of dividends.
Earnings growth: Consistent earnings growth.
Price: Less than 120% of net tangible assets.
It's important to remember that most top professional investors first become interested in a stock when the share price is falling, not when it's rising. Looking at the daily list of new 52-week lows can be a great way to start.
Portfolio policy for the entrepreneurial investor:
low price Buy in wands and sell in high markets: Enter the market during recessions and exit in later stages of uptrends.
Buying carefully selected “growth stocks”: A growth stock can be defined as a stock that has performed better than average in the past and is expected to do so in the future.
Various types of negotiated dismissals: Usually created by currently disappointing results and long-term neglect of popularity.
“Special situations” acquisition: For example, purchasing a potential acquisition target (usually smaller companies).
Buying a large company that is relatively unpopular: Small companies that continue to grow may be trading at an extremely high multiple, while large companies may be trading at an extremely low multiple due to current popularity. The advantage of large companies is that they are more stable.
Investment Choice: How to Analyze Stocks and Bonds?
When analyzing bonds: The most important criterion to consider is how many times total interest expenses are covered by current earnings. We must analyze at least 7 years of history.
For preferred stocks: The number of times bond interest and preferred dividends have been covered by current earnings over the past 7 years.
For stocks: We need to compare the company's valuations with the current price at which the company is traded on the stock market. We should always look for a margin of safety by purchasing the stock at a price lower than its intrinsic value. The fewer assumptions we have to make about the future during the analysis, the less likely there is to be an error. Avoid making too many assumptions in your stock analysis.
Factors that determine how much an enterprising investor should pay for a stock:
The company's long-term prospects: Gather evidence in the financial statements that answers two questions: What makes this company grow? Where do their profits come from (and where will they come from)? Look for companies that:
Have a wide “moat” or competitive advantage.
Run a long marathon instead of a short sprint.
Focus on what you plant.
2. Management competence: Look for management that says what to do and does what they say. Good management acknowledges failures and takes responsibility for them.
3. Financial strength and capital structure: A good business produces more cash than it consumes. See if cash provided by operations has grown steadily over the last 10 years in the statement of cash flows.
4. Dividend record: The most accurate method of identifying high-quality companies is an uninterrupted record of dividend payments going back many years (20 years is preferred).
5. Current dividend rate.
6. Think long term: Looking at the long term provides a better indication of the future health of the company.
7. See footnotes: Be wary of aggressive revenue recognition practices. This is a sign of deep and great dangers. Also, be wary of companies that don't charge expenses in exchange for revenue when appropriate. Instead, they treat these expenses as a capital expenditure that increases the company's total assets rather than reducing net income.
Margin of Safety, the Most Important Concept
The margin of safety in stock investing is the difference between the intrinsic value of the company and the price we pay to buy it. The amount of the price paid is the most important factor in investment.
Setting the purchase price and having the discipline to only buy at or below price is where the real test lies. A low enough price relative to its intrinsic value can turn even a mediocre-quality stock into a great investment opportunity. The larger the margin of safety, the more leeway we have for things to go wrong before we lose money. If the future is as we expect, the profit from that investment will be much higher.
Unfortunately, not many people in the world can make accurate predictions about the future of a company. There is always the risk of paying too much. The reason for having a margin of safety is essentially to make it less necessary to make an accurate prediction about the future. A buffer is provided for incorrect predictions. One of the main reasons why investors make losses is because they buy low-quality stocks without a margin of safety when business conditions are favourable.
Diversification is an important component of the “margin of safety”
Luck will be on our side only when we invest in individual stocks with a wide enough margin of safety. While some stocks will meet our expectations, many will not. Diversification can increase the margin of safety benefits. A diversified portfolio is more likely to produce above-average returns.
11 rules that can help both analysts and investors
Estimate a company's earning capacity to measure value. Multiply this correctly and take into account the asset value n.
Earnings capacity is an estimate of the firm's earnings over the next five years.
Estimate a firm's average earnings during this period. You can do this by averaging past performance. Then forecast future margins and revenues.
Adjust previous years' figures to reflect changes in capitalization.
You must use a maximum multiplier of 20 and a minimum of 8. This allows for changes in earnings over the long term.
If the value from earnings power is greater than the value of fixed assets, subtract it from the change in earnings value. Recommended: Subtract one-quarter of the total where the earning power value is more than twice the asset value. This allows for a 100% bonus on tangible assets, excluding penalties.
If this value is less than the value of net current assets, add 50% of the variance to the value measured in terms of earning power.
In case of unusual events such as war, short-term royalties or leases, adjust the value accordingly.
Assign value among bondholders, shareholders or preferred shareholders. Before this step, calculate the company value as if there were only stocks in the capital structure.
The more debt and preferred stock in the capital structure, the less you have to rely on appraised value. Decisions should not be made based on this value.
When the appraisal is more or less than one-third of the current market value, you can make your decision accordingly. If the difference is less, the rating is merely a factor to be considered in the evaluation.
And never forget, investing is smart when done like a business. When we buy a share of stock, we become a partner in the company.
Value investing is definitely a great approach to creating long-term wealth. But value investing also requires a significant amount of commitment on your part. You need to examine a company, arrive at its true or true intrinsic value, and then determine the best opportunity to buy that stock, which is when its price is below its intrinsic value. If you already have a full-time job or are not inclined to invest your time and energy in this type of analysis, you may be better off investing in mutual funds.
Essentially, mutual funds are funds that pool investor money and then invest it in stocks, debt, gold, etc. They are investment instruments that invest in different asset classes such as. In equity investing, some mutual fund schemes follow the value investing approach where the fund manager partners with the investment team. It uses value investing to identify stocks that trade at a steep discount to market prices and therefore have a good margin of safety. An additional benefit of investing through mutual funds is that it offers you the opportunity to diversify your portfolio, thus reducing overall portfolio risk. From this perspective, they can help you become value investors without having to put in the effort to analyze a stock, determine its purchase price, and follow it until it reaches the best selling price.
Note: If you like the content, consider reading the original book.
Resource
[1] edelweissmf, (2023), The Intelligent Investor:
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